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to find occupation within themselves； and to expend themselves on moral self…adulation。
§ 31
It is quite otherwise with the prehensive relations that History has to do with。 In this sphere are
presented those momentous collisions between existing； acknowledged duties； laws； and rights；
and those contingencies which are adverse to this fixed system； — which assail and even destroy
its foundations and existence； whose tenor may nevertheless seem good；… on the large scale
advantageous； — yes； even indispensable and necessary。 These contingencies realise themselves in
History： they involve a general principle of a different order from that on which depends the
permanence of a people or a State。 This principle is an essential phase in the development of the
creating Idea； of Truth striving and urging towards ＇consciousness of＇ itself。 Historical men …
World…Historical Individuals … are those in whose aims such a general principle lies。
§ 32
Caesar； in danger of losing a position； not perhaps at that time of superiority； yet at least of
equality with the others who were at the head of the State； and of succumbing to those who were
just on the point of being his enemies； … belongs essentially to this category。 These enemies —
who were at the same time pursuing their personal aims — had the form of the constitution； and
the power conferred by an appearance of justice； on their side。 Caesar was contending for the
maintenance of his position； honour； and safety； and； since the power of his opponents included
the sovereignty over the provinces of the Roman Empire； his victory secured for him the conquest
of that entire Empire： and he thus became — though leaving the form of the constitution — the
Autocrat of the State。 That which secured for him the execution of a design； which in the first
instance was of negative import — the Autocracy of Rome； — was； however； at the same time an
independently necessary feature in the history of Rome and of the world。 It was not； then； his
private gain merely； but an unconscious impulse that occasioned the acplishment of that for
which the time was ripe。 Such are all great historical men — whose own particular aims involve
those large issues which are the will of the World…Spirit。 They may be called Heroes； inasmuch as
they have derived their purposes and their vocation； not from the calm； regular course of things；
sanctioned by the existing order； but from a concealed fount — one which has not attained to
phenomenal； present existence； — from that inner Spirit； still hidden beneath the surface； which；
impinging on the outer world as on a shell； bursts it in pieces； because it is another kernel than that
which belonged to the shell in question。 They are men； therefore； who appear to draw the impulse
of their life from themselves； and whose deeds have produced a condition of things and a plex
of historical relations which appear to be only their interest； and their work。
§ 33
Such individuals had no consciousness of the general Idea they were unfolding； while prosecuting
those aims of theirs； on the contrary； they were practical； political men。 But at the same time they
were thinking men； who had an insight into the requirements of the time — what was ripe for
development。 This was the very Truth for their age； for their world； the species next in order； so
to speak； and which was already formed in the womb of time。 It was theirs to know this nascent
principle； the necessary； directly sequent step in progress； which their world was to take； to make
this their aim； and to expend their energy in promoting it。 World…historical men — the Heroes of an
epoch — must； therefore； be recognised as it's clear…sighted ones； their deeds； their words are
the best of that time。 Great men have formed purposes to satisfy themselves； not others。 Whatever
prudent designs and counsels they might have learned from others； would be the more limited and
inconsistent features in their career； for it was they who best understood affairs； from whom
others learned； and approved； or at least acquiesced in their policy。 For that Spirit which had
taken this fresh step in history is the inmost soul of all individuals； but in a state of unconsciousness
which the great men in question aroused。 Their fellows； therefore； follow these soul…leaders； for
they feel the irresistible power of their own inner Spirit thus embodied。 If we go on to cast a look
at the fate of these World…Historical persons； whose vocation it was to be the agents of the
World…Spirit； — we shall find it to have been no happy one。 They attained no calm enjoyment；
their whole life was labour and trouble； their whole nature was nought else but their
master…passion。 When their object is attained they fall off like empty hulls from the kernel。 They
die early； like Alexander； they are murdered； like Caesar； transported to St。 Helena。； like
Napoleon。 This fearful consolation — that historical men have not enjoyed what is called
happiness； and of which only private life （and this may be passed under very various external
circumstances） is capable； — this consolation those may draw from history； who stand in need of
it； and it is craved by Envy — vexed at what is great and transcendent； — striving； therefore； to
depreciate it； and to find some flaw in it。 Thus in modern times it has been demonstrated ad
nauseam that princes are generally unhappy on their thrones； in consideration of which the
possession of a throne is tolerated； and men acquiesce in the fact that not themselves but the
personages in question are its occupants。 The Free Man； we may observe； is not envious； but
gladly recognises what is great and exalted； and rejoices that it exists。
§ 34
It is in the light of those mon elements which constitute the interest and therefore the passions
of individuals； that these historical men are to be regarded。 They are great men； because they
willed and acplished something great； not a mere fancy； a mere intention； but that which met
the case and fell in with the needs of the age。 This mode of considering them also excludes the
so…called “psychological” view； which — serving the purpose of envy most effectually … contrives
so to refer all actions to the heart； — to bring them under such a subjective aspect — as that their
authors appear to have done everything under the impulse of some passion； mean or grand； —
some morbid craving； — and on account of these passions and cravings to have been not moral
men。 Alexander of Macedon partly subdued Greece； and then Asia； therefore he was possessed
by a morbid craving for conquest。 He is alleged to have acted from a craving for fame； for
conquest； and the proof that these were the impelling motives is that he did that which resulted in
fame。 What pedagogue has not demonstrated of Alexander the Great — of Julius Caesar — that
they were instigated by such passions； and en； — whence the
conclusion immediately follows that he； the pedagogue； is a better man than they； because he has
not such passions； a proof of which lies in the fact that he does not conquer Asia； — vanquish
Darius and Porus； — but while he enjoys life himself lets others enjoy it too。 These psychologists
are particularly fond of contemplating those peculiarities of great historical figures which appertain
to them as private persons。 Man must eat and drink； he sustains relations to friends and
acquaintances； he has passing impulses and ebullitions of temper。 “No man is a hero to his
valet…de…chambre；” is a well…known proverb； I have added — and Goethe repeated it ten years
later — “but not because the former is no hero； but because the latter is a valet。” He takes off the
hero's boots； assists him to bed； knows that he prefers champagne； &c。 Historical personages
waited upon in historical literature by such psychological valets； e poorly off； they are brought
down by these their attendants to a level with — or rather a few degrees below the level of — the
morality of such exquisite discerners of spirits。 The Thersites of Homer who abuses the kings is a
standing figure for all times。 Blows — that is beating with a solid cudgel — he does not get in every
age as in the Homeric one； but his envy； his egotism； is the thorn which he has to carry in his flesh；
and the undying worm that gnaws him is the tormenting consideration that his excellent views and
vituperations remain absolutely without result in the world。 But our satisfaction at the fate of
Thersitism also； may have its sinister side。
§ 35
A World…historical individual is not so unwise as to indulge a variety of wishes to divide his
regards。 He is devoted to the One Aim； regardless of all else。 It is even possible that such men
may treat other great； even sacred interests； inconsiderately； conduct which is indeed obnoxious to
moral reprehension。 But so mighty a form must trample down many an innocent flower…crush to
pieces many an object in its path。
§ 36
The special interest of passion is thus inseparable from the active development of a general
principle： for it is from the special and determinate and from its negation； that the Universal results。
Particularity contends with its like； and some loss is involved in the issue。 It is not the general idea
that is implicated in opposition and bat； and that is exposed to danger。 It remains in the
background； untouched and uninjured。 This may be called the cunning of reason； — that it sets
the passions to work for itself； while that which develops its existence through such impulsion pays
the penalty and suffers loss。 For it is phenomenal being that is so treated； and of this； part is of no
value； part is positive and real。 The particular is for the most part of too trifling value as pared
with the general： individuals are sacrificed and abandoned。 The Idea pays the penalty of
determinate existence and of corruptibility； not from itself； but from the passions of individuals。
§ 37
But though we might tolerate the idea that individuals； their desires and the gratification of them；
are thus sacrificed； and their happiness given up to the empire of chance； to which it belongs； and
that as a general rule； individuals e under the category of means to an ulterior end； — there is
one aspect of human individuality which we should hesitate to regard in that subordinate light； even
in relation to the highest； since it is absolutely no subordinate element； but exists in those individuals
as inherently eternal and divine。 I mean morality； ethics； religion。 Even when speaking of the
realisation of the great ideal aim by means of individuals； the subjective element in them — their
interest and that of their cravings and impulses； their views and judgments； though exhibited as the
merely formal side of their existence； — was spoken of as having an infinite right to be consulted。
The first idea that presents itself in speaking of means is that of something external to the object；
and having no share in the object itself。 But merely natural things — even the monest lifeless
objects — used as means； must be of such a kind as adapts them to their purpose； they must
possess something in mon with it。 Human beings least of all； sustain the bare external relation
of mere means to the great ideal aim。 Not only do they in the very act of realising it； make it the
occasion of satisfying personal desires； whose purport is diverse from that aim — but they share in
that ideal aim itself； and are for that very reason objects of their own existence； not formally
merely； as the world of living beings generally is — whose individual life is essentially subordinate
to that of man； and is properly used up as an instrument。 Men； on the contrary； are objects of
existence to themselves； as regards the intrinsic import of the aim in question。 To this order
belongs that in them which we would exclude from the category of mere means； … Morality； Ethics；
Religion。 That is to say