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ape changes （ i。e。； a pound of clay is still a pound of clay whether it is rolled in a ball or pounded flat）。
Consolidation
The physiological changes in the brain associated with memory storage。
Consolidation Failure
The failure to store information in memory。
Constant
Any variable that remains the same throughout a study。
Construct
Any variable that can not be directly observed but rather is measured through indirect methods。 （Examples： intelligence； motivation）
Construct Validity
The general validity of a measuring device。 Construct validity answers the question of whether or not the measuring device actually measures the construct under question。
Content Validity
A measurement device’s ability to be generalized to the entire content of what is being measured。
Context Dependent Memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place。
Continuous Reinforcement
The application of reinforcement every time a specific behavior occurs。
Control Group
The group of subjects in an experiment that does not receive the independent variable。
Convergence
The binocular cue to distance referring to the fact that the closer an object； the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus
Convergent Thinking
Logical and conventional thought leading to a single answer。
Conversion Disorder
A somatoform disorder where the individual experiences a loss of sensation or function due to a psychological belief （e。g。； paralysis； blindness； deafness）。
Correlated Sample
Sample data that is related to each other。
Correlation
The degree to which two or more variables a related to each other。 A correlation refers to the direction that the variables move and does not necessarily represent cause and effect。 （Example： height and weight are correlated。 As one increases； the other tends to increase as well）
Correlation Coefficient
The statistic or number representing the degree to which two or more variables are related。 Often abbreviated 'r。'
Counter conditioning
The use of conditioning to eliminate a previously conditioned response。 The conditioned stimulus （CS） is repaired with a different unconditioned stimulus （UCS） to eventually elicit a new conditioned response （CR）
Critical Period
A time frame deemed highly important in developing in a healthy manner； can be physically； emotionally； behaviorally； or cognitively。
Critical Value
The value of a statistic required in order to consider the results significant。
Cross Sectional Study
A research study that examines the effects of development （maturation） by examining different subjects at various ages
Cross Sequential Study
A research study that examines the effects of development （maturation） by bining longitudinal and cross sectional studies
Crowding
The psychological and psychological response to the belief that there are too many people in a specified area。
Crystallized Intelligence
The part of intelligence which involves the acquisition； as opposed to the use； of information
D
Decay
Theory which states that memory fades and/or disappears over time if it is not used or accessed。
Declarative Memory
The part of long…term memory where factual information is stored； such as mathematical formulas； vocabulary； and life events。
Deductive Reasoning
Decision making process in which ideas are processed from the general to the specific。
Defenses （Defense Mechanisms）
Psychological forces which prevent undesirable or inappropriate impulses from entering consciousness （e。g。； forgetting responsibilities that we really didn't want to do； projecting anger onto a spouse as opposed to your boss）。 Also called Defense Mechanisms； Defense System； or Ego Defenses。
Degrees of Freedom
The numbers of individual scores that can vary without changing the sample mean。 Statistically written as 'N…1' where N represents the number of subjects。
Delusion
False belief system （e。g。； believing you are Napoleon； have magical powers； or the false belief that others are 'out to get you。'）。
Dendrites
Extensions of the cell body of a neuron responsible for receiving ining neurotransmitters。
Dependent Variable
The variable in an experiment that is measured； the oute of an experiment。
Descriptive Statistics
The branch of statistics that focuses on describing in numerical format what is happening now within a population。 Descriptive statistics require that all subjects in the population （the entire class； all males in a school； all professors） be tested。
Developmental Psychology
The area of psychology focused on how children grow psychologically to bee who they are as adults。
Deviation IQ Score
A standard score used for reporting IQ scores where the mean is set to 100 and standard deviation to 15
Difference Threshold
The smallest change in perception which is noticeable at least 50％ of the time。
Discrimination
In behavioral theory； the learned ability to differentiate between two similar objects or situations。
Disorientation
Inability to recognize or be aware of who we are （person）； what we are doing （situation）； the time and date （time）； or where we are in relation to our environment （place）。 To be considered a problem； it must be consistent； result in difficulty functioning； and not due to forgetting or being lost。
Displacement
The pushing out of older information in short term memory to make room for new information。
Dispositional Attribute
An attribute explained or interpreted as being caused by internal influences。
Dissociation
A separation from the self； with the most severe resulting in Dissociative Identity Disorder。 Most of us experience this in very mild forms such as when we are driving long distance and lose time or find ourselves day dreaming longer than we thought。
Distinctiveness
The phenomenon in memory that states we are better able to remember information if it is distinctive or different from other information。
Divergent Thinking
The ability to use previously gained information to debate or discuss issues which have no agreed upon definitive resolution。
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement； attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system。
Dopamine Hypothesis
The theory that schizophrenia is caused by an excess amount of dopamine in the brain。 Research has found that medication to reduce dopamine can reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia。
Double Blind Study
Research method in which both the subjects and the experimenter are unaware or 'blind' to the anticipated results。
Drive
An internal motivation to fulfill a need or reduce the negative aspects of an unpleasant situation。
Drug Therapy
The use of medication to treat a mental illness。
E
Ego
In Psychoanalytical theory； the part of the personality which maintains a balance between our impulses （id） and our conscience （superego）。
Egocentric
The thinking in the preoperational stage of cognitive development where children believe everyone sees the world fro the same perspective as he or she does。
Ego Defense Mechanisms
See Defenses
Ego Ideal
In psychoanalytic thought； this is the ideal or desired behavior of the ego according to the superego。
Ellis； Albert
A cognitive Psychologist who developed the concept of Rational…Emotive Therapy。
Emotion
Feelings about a situation； person； or objects that involves changes in physiological arousal and cognitions。
Emotional Intelligence （EQ）
The awareness of and ability to manage one's emotions in a healthy and productive manner。
Encoding
The transformation of information to be stored in memory。
Endorphins
A neurotransmitter involved in pain relief； and feelings of pleasure and contentedness。
Epinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in energy and glucose metabolism。 Too little has been associated with depression。
Episodic Memory
Subcategory of Declarative memory where information regarding life events are stored。
Equal Intervals
Characteristic of a scale of measurement where the individual units possess the qualities of equal intervals。 The difference between each unit of measurement is exactly the same。
Equity Theory
The theory that argues a couple must see each other as contributing and benefiting equally to the relationship for them both to feel fortable in the relationship。
Error
The amount of other variables （aside from what you are measuring） that can impact the observed score
Error Level
The level of accepted error within a given set of data。 The greater the error level； the wider the confidence interval。
Escape Conditioning
Operant conditioning based on the idea that a behavior is more likely to be repeated if it results in the cessation of a negative event。
Estimate
An idea about a characteristic of a population based on sample data （e。g。； the sample mean IQ was 102 so we estimate that the population mean IQ is also 102）
Eta
A correlational technique used primarily for non…linear relationships。 （Example； ine and age are positively correlated until older age at which point the correlation reverses itself to some extent。
Etiology
Causal relationships of diseases； theories regarding how the specific disease or disorder began。
Experimental Group
In research； the group of subjects who receive the independent variable。
Experimental Method
Research method using random assignment of subjects and the manipulation of variables in order to determine cause and effect。
Experimenter Bias
Errors in a research study due to the predisposed notions or beliefs of the experimenter。
Expert Power
Power derived through advanced knowledge or experience in a particular subject。
Ex…Post…Facto （After the Fact） Research
Research method in which the independent variable is administered prior to the study without the researcher’s control and its effects are investigated afterward
External Locus of Control
The belief that the environment has more control over life circumstances than the individual does。
External Validity
The extent to which the data collected from a sample can be generalized to the entire population。
Extinction
The reduction and eventual disappearance of a learned or conditioned response after it is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus…response chain。
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire or push to perform a certain behavior based on the potential external rewards that may be received as a result。
Extroversion
Personality style where the individual prefers outward and group activity as opposed to inward and individual activity。
F
Factor Analysis
A statistical technique used to determine the number of ponents in a set of data。 These ponents are then named according to their characteristics allowing a researcher to break down information into statistical groups。
Factorial ANOVA
An Analysis of Variance used when there are two or more independent variables。 When there are two； the ANOVA is called a Two…Way ANOVA； three independent variables would use a Three…Way ANOVA； etc。
Family Therapy
Treatment involving family members which seeks to change the unhealthy familial patterns and interactions。
Fixation
In Freud's theory of psychosexual development； the failure to plete a stage successfully which results in a continuation of that stage into later adulthood。
Fixed Interval Schedule
A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a specific period of time。
Fixed Ratio Schedule
A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a specific number of responses。
Fetish
A condition in which arousal and/or sexual gratification is attained through inanimate objects （shoes； pantyhose） or non…sexual body parts （feet； hair）。 Is considered a problem when the object is needed in order to obtain arousal or gratification and the individual can not can not plete a sexual act without this object present。
Frequency Distribution
A table showing the number of occurrences for each score
Frequency Effect
The phenomenon in memory which states that we tend to remember information better if it is repeated。
Freud； Sigmund
Dr。 Freud is often referred to as the fat